GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING: ENDOSCOPIC AND SURGICAL APPROACHES AND THE RISK OF REBLEEDING
Abstract
Gastrointestinal bleeding (GIB) is one of the most frequent, time-critical clinical syndromes in emergency medicine, gastroenterology, and surgery. The bleeding source may be upper (esophagus–stomach–duodenum) or lower (small/large bowel); the clinical presentation (hematemesis, melena, hematochezia), hemodynamic status, and comorbidities determine the management strategy. Contemporary care integrates early resuscitation and risk stratification with timely endoscopy; interventional radiology (CT angiography and selective embolization) and surgery serve as escalation options when endoscopic control is inadequate. This article synthesizes evidence-based principles for stepwise management of GIB, selection of endoscopic hemostasis techniques, practical differences between variceal and non-variceal bleeding, indications for surgical intervention, and strategies for stratifying and preventing rebleeding.