Engineering Black Phosphorus Quantum Dots: Rational Design, Structure–Property Relationships, and Stability Challenges

Black phosphorus quantum dots (BPQDs) have emerged as an important class of zero-dimensional quantum materials that combine the anisotropic electronic structure of black phosphorus with pronounced quantum confinement effects. Their size-dependent optical, electronic, and physicochemical properties have stimulated extensive research in nanoelectronics, sensing, photocatalysis, and biomedicine. Despite significant progress, the practical implementation of BPQDs remains constrained by limited control over structure–property relationships, insufficient stability under environmental conditions, and the absence of unified engineering principles. This review critically examines recent advances in BPQD synthesis, structural engineering, quantum confinement, and advanced characterization, with particular emphasis on the mechanisms governing degradation, surface reactivity, defect evolution, and stability. Rather than summarizing existing studies individually, the review establishes an integrated framework connecting synthetic strategies, structural characteristics, stability mechanisms, and functional performance. Current challenges associated with scalable production, standardized characterization, and long-term reliability are critically evaluated, and future perspectives are discussed in the context of predictive design, interface engineering, and stability-oriented material development. This integrated perspective provides practical guidance for advancing BPQDs from laboratory-scale nanomaterials toward reliable quantum platforms for next-generation technologies.

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