Military expenditure, financial development and environmental degradation in Turkey: A comparison of <scp>CO₂</scp> emissions and ecological footprint

Abstract This study investigates the long run equilibrium relationship among military expenditure, financial development, energy use, economic growth and environmental degradation in Turkey for the period of 1960–2014. Ecological footprint and carbon dioxide emissions are used as separate proxies for environmental degradation. Fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) estimator results suggest that military expenditure, energy use and economic growth increase the environmental degradation while financial development improves the environmental quality in Turkey. Toda Yamamoto (1995) causality test results reveal that there is a unidirectional causality running from military expenditure to CO 2 emissions and ecological footprint; and a bidirectional causality between military expenditure and economic growth. The findings of the study confirm the existence of destruction theory for the case of Turkey.

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