Millimeter Light Curves of Sagittarius A* Observed during the 2017 Event Horizon Telescope Campaign
Maciek WielgusMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyN. MarchiliItalian ALMA Regional Centre, INAF-Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, ItalyI. Martí‐VidalDepartament d'Astronomia i Astrofísica, Universitat de València, C. Dr. Moliner 50, E-46100 Burjassot, València, SpainGarrett K. KeatingCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAVenkatessh RamakrishnanAalto UniversityPaul TiedeBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAEd FomalontNational Radio Astronomy Observatory, 520 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USASara IssaounCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAJoey NeilsenVillanova University, Mendel Science Center Rm. 263B, 800 E. Lancaster Ave., Villanova, PA 19085, USAMichael A. NowakPhysics Department, Washington University CB 1105, St. Louis, MO 63130, USALindy BlackburnCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USACharles F. GammieDepartment of Astronomy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1002 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USAC. GoddiDipartimento di Fisica, Universitá degli Studi di Cagliari, SP Monserrato-Sestu km 0.7, I-09042 Monserrato, ItalyDaryl HaggardMcGill Space Institute, McGill University, 3550 rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2A7, CanadaDaeyoung LeeDepartment of Physics, University of Illinois, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USAMonika MościbrodzkaDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsAlexandra J. TetarenkoDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-1051, USAGeoffrey C. BowerDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2505 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USAChi‐kwan ChanSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USAKoushik ChatterjeeCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAPaul M. CheslerBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAJason DexterJILA and Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USASheperd S. DoelemanCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USABoris GeorgievWaterloo Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, CanadaMark GurwellCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAMichael D. JohnsonCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USADaniel P. MarroneSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USAAlejandro MusDepartament d'Astronomia i Astrofísica, Universitat de València, C. Dr. Moliner 50, E-46100 Burjassot, València, SpainDimitrios PsaltisSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USABart RipperdaCenter for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USAGunther WitzelMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyKazunori AkiyamaBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAA. AlberdiInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainW. AlefMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyJuan Carlos AlgabaDepartment of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaRichard AnantuaDepartment of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Texas at San Antonio, 1 UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, USAKeiichi AsadaInstitute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 11F of Astronomy-Mathematics Building, AS/NTU No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.CRebecca AzulayDepartament d'Astronomia i Astrofísica, Universitat de València, C. Dr. Moliner 50, E-46100 Burjassot, València, SpainU. BachMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyAnne-Kathrin BaczkoMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyDavid BallSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USAMislav BalokovićYale Center for Astronomy & Astrophysics, Yale University, 52 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT 06511, USAJ. BarrettMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USAMichi BauböckDepartment of Physics, University of Illinois, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USAB. A. BensonFermi National Accelerator Laboratory, MS209, P.O. Box 500, Batavia, IL 60510, USADan BintleyEast Asian Observatory, 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAR. BlundellCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAW. BolandNederlandse Onderzoekschool voor Astronomie (NOVA), PO Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The NetherlandsKatherine L. BoumanCalifornia Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USAHope BoyceMcGill Space Institute, McGill University, 3550 rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2A7, CanadaMichael BremerInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique, 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceChristiaan D. BrinkerinkDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsRoger BrissendenBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAS. BritzenMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyAvery E. BroderickPerimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline Street North, Waterloo, ON N2L 2Y5, CanadaDominique BroguièreInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique, 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceThomas BronzwaerDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsSandra BustamanteDepartment of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, 01003, Amherst, MA, USADo‐Young ByunKorea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Daedeok-daero 776, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34055, Republic of KoreaJ. E. CarlstromDepartment of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USAChiara CeccobelloDepartment of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, SE-43992 Onsala, SwedenAndrew ChaelPrinceton Center for Theoretical Science, Jadwin Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USAShami ChatterjeeCornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USAMing‐Tang ChenYongjun ChenKey Laboratory of Radio Astronomy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People’s Republic of China; Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 80 Nandan Road, Shanghai 200030, People’s Republic of ChinaIlje ChoInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainPierre ChristianPhysics Department, Fairfield University, 1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield, CT 06824, USANicholas S. ConroyCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAJ. E. ConwayDepartment of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, SE-43992 Onsala, SwedenJ. M. CordesCornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USAT. M. CrawfordKavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USAG. CrewMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USAAlejandro Cruz-OsorioInstitut für Theoretische Physik, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 1, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyYuzhu CuiDepartment of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, JapanJordy DavelaarCenter for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USAMariafelicia De LaurentisInstitut für Theoretische Physik, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 1, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyRoger DeaneCentre for Radio Astronomy Techniques and Technologies, Department of Physics and Electronics, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, South AfricaJessica DempseyEast Asian Observatory, 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAG. DesvignesMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyVedant DhruvDepartment of Physics, University of Illinois, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USASergio A. DzibMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyRalph P. EatoughNational Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of ChinaRazieh EmamiCenter for Astrophysics, Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAH. FalckeDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsJoseph FarahLas Cumbres Observatory, 6740 Cortona Drive, Suite 102, Goleta, CA 93117-5575, USAVincent L. FishMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USAH. Alyson FordSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USARaquel Fraga-EncinasDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsWilliam T. FreemanDepartment of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 32-D476, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02142, USAPer FribergJames Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAChristian M. FrommInstitut für Theoretische Physik, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 1, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyAntonio FuentesInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainPeter GalisonBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USARoberto GarcíaInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique, 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceOlivier GentazInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique, 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceRoman GoldCP3-Origins, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, DenmarkArturo I. Gómez-RuizInstituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica, Apartado Postal 51 y 216, 72000. Puebla Pue., MéxicoJosé L. GómezInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CíSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainMinfeng GuKey Laboratory for Research in Galaxies and Cosmology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, People’s Republic of China; Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 80 Nandan Road, Shanghai 200030, People’s Republic of ChinaKazuhiro HadaDepartment of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan
2022en
ABI
Аннотация
Abstract The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observed the compact radio source, Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), in the Galactic Center on 2017 April 5–11 in the 1.3 mm wavelength band. At the same time, interferometric array data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array and the Submillimeter Array were collected, providing Sgr A* light curves simultaneous with the EHT observations. These data sets, complementing the EHT very long baseline interferometry, are characterized by a cadence and signal-to-noise ratio previously unattainable for Sgr A* at millimeter wavelengths, and they allow for the investigation of source variability on timescales as short as a minute. While most of the light curves correspond to a low variability state of Sgr A*, the April 11 observations follow an X-ray flare and exhibit strongly enhanced variability. All of the light curves are consistent with a red-noise process, with a power spectral density (PSD) slope measured to be between −2 and −3 on timescales between 1 minute and several hours. Our results indicate a steepening of the PSD slope for timescales shorter than 0.3 hr. The spectral energy distribution is flat at 220 GHz, and there are no time lags between the 213 and 229 GHz frequency bands, suggesting low optical depth for the event horizon scale source. We characterize Sgr A*’s variability, highlighting the different behavior observed just after the X-ray flare, and use Gaussian process modeling to extract a decorrelation timescale and a PSD slope. We also investigate the systematic calibration uncertainties by analyzing data from independent data reduction pipelines.
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