Kazakhstan's Kin State Diaspora: Settlement Planning and the<b><i>Oralman</i></b>Dilemma

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes See C. King & N. Melvin, 'Diaspora Politics: Ethnic Linkages, Foreign Policy and Security in Eurasia', International Security, 24, 3, 2000, p.117. The 1999 Russian population of Kazakhstan was 73% of its 1989 level; the 1999 Ukrainian population was 62.5% of its 1989 level; the 1999 German population was 37.3% of its 1989 level; see Agenstvo Kazakhstan po Statistike, Kratkie itogi perepisi naseleniya 1999 goda v Respublike Kazakhstan (Almaty, 1999), p11. For a concise discussion of the changing ethnic composition of Kazakhstan's governmental bodies see J. Holm-Hansen, 'Political Integration in Kazakhstan', in P. Kolstoe (ed.), Nation Building and Ethnic Integration in Post Soviet Societies: An Investigation of Latvia and Kazakhstan (Oxford, Westview Press, 1999), pp. 192 – 211; Zh. Dzhunusova, Respublika Kazakhstan: Prezident (Almaty, Zheti Zhargy, 1996), pp. 80 – 93; and M. Brill Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for Peace, 2002), pp. 87 – 127. See A. Diener, 'One Homeland Or Two?: Territorialization of Identity and the Migration Decision of the Mongolian Kazakh Diaspora', doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2003, p. 386. See also A. Diener, 'National Territory and the Reconstruction of History in Kazakhstan', Eurasian Geography and Economics, 43, 8, 2002, pp. 632 – 650; G.L. Mendikulova, 'Kazakhskaya Diaspora i Respublika Kazakhstan: Problemy i Perspekivy', Kazakhstan Spektr, 1, 3, 1998, pp. 73 – 78. See Agenstvo Kazakhstan po Statistike, Kratkie itogi …., p. 11. See Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 23 November 1991, p. 1;B. Bamishuly, 'Aghaiynyng Aghyldy Atazhurtka ….', Egemen Kazakhstan, 29 July 1992, p. 3; Z. Turysbekov, 'Elinge Kait Aghaiyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 1 October 1998, p. 4; Z. Zhaparuly, 'Kazaktar Kshan Atazhurtta Toptasady?!' Kazakh Eli, 19 September 1997, pp. 1 – 3; O. Omirbek, 'Kosh Kolik ti Bolsyn, Ortamyz Tola Bersin', Egemen Kazakhstan, 16 December 1996, p. 4; Zh. Shaluly, 'Kosh Koshke Uliasty', Kazakh Eli, 20 September 1996, pp. 1 – 5. The figures 4.1 million and 500,000 come from S. Zhusupov, Immigration Policy in Kazakhstan: Case of Repatriates (Almaty, KISEIF – Kazakhstan Institute of Social and Economic Information and Forecasting, 2000), p. 4. This estimate is debatable not only in terms of numerical accuracy but in terms of the dispersed people's self-conception. For different estimates see G.L. Mendikulova, Istoricheskie Sud'by Kazakhskoi Diaspory: Proiskhozhdenie i Razvitie (Almaty, Ghylym, 1997); B. Seiitbattalov, 'Ush Kazakhtyng Bireui Zhat Zhurtta Zhur', Egemen Kazakhstan, 26 April 2000, p. 8; and S.N. Cummings, 'The Kazakhs: Demographics, Diasporas, and "Return" ', in C. King & N. Melvin (eds), Nations Abroad (Boulder, Westview Press, 1998), p. 136. See Zhusupov, Immigration Policy …. p. 2. Zhusupov notes that Uzbekistani Kazakhs will soon surpass Mongolian Kazakhs as the most numerous return migrant group. See also S. Zhusupov, Strategiya Migratsionnoi Programmy "Oralman" (Almaty, KISEIF and Open Society Institute, 2001), p. 2. See W. Safran, 'Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return', Diaspora, 1, 1, 1991, pp. 83 – 92; R. Munz & R. Ohliger, Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Post-Soviet Successor States in Comparative Perspective (London, Frank Cass, 2003); H. Pilkington, 'Going Home? The Implications of Forced Migration for National Identity Formation in post-Soviet Russia', in K. Koser & H. Lutz (eds), The New Migration in Europe: Social Constructions and Social Realities (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 85 – 108; H. Pilkington & M. Flynn, 'From "Refugee" to "Repatriate". Russian Repatriation Discourse in the Making', in R. Black & K. Koser (eds), The End of the Refugee Cycle? Refugee Repatriation and Reconstruction (New York, Berghahn Books, 1999), pp. 171 – 197; H. Pilkington, Migration, Displacement and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia (London, Routledge, 1998); and A. Diener, Homeland Conceptions and Ethnic Integration Among Kazakhstan's Germans and Koreans (The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004). See 'Theoretical and Comparative Context' section below. O. Urimkhanuly, 'Oralmandargha Ortak Mung', Kazakh Eli, 18 February 1998, p. 1; T. Zakenuly, 'Kytaidan Koshuding Kiynshyldghy', Kazakh Eli, 28 February 1997, p. 3; B. Sharip, Zamanai (film made by a Kazakh filmmaker in the independent Republic of Kazakhstan and dedicated to the Year of National Accord and the victims of political repression, 1998); A. Maikatauly, 'Kazakh Kosh Tokyratyp Otyrghan Kimder?', Kazakh Eli, 24 January 1997, pp. 1 – 3; A. Maukaruly, 'Kazakh Repatrianttarynyng Bugim taghdyry Kandai?!', Kazakh Eli, 31 January 1997, pp. 1 – 4; T. Ramberdi, B. Amalbek, C. Beiisbai, B. Iliyas, T. Ilimzhan, A. Nesipbai & M. Kosymbai, 'Koshi-Kon Maselesi Kongilge Kona ma?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 22 July 1998, p. 5; S. Amiz, 'Aghaiyndar Azamattyk Aludy Angsaidy', Egemen Kazakhstan, 27 April 2001, p. 3; A. Bek Kala, 'Zher Turaly Zang Zhobasynda Oralmandar Nege Umyt Kalghan?', Zhas Alash, 4 April 2000, p. 3; B. Bitan, 'Kosi-Koning Kokeikesti Maselelri', Egemen Kazakhstan, 22 October 1993, p. 3; B. Ilias, 'Oralmandardyng Mungy Bir – Endigi Zherde Olae Omip Taukymetin Birlesip Sheshpekshi', Egemen Kazakhstan, 2 November 2000, p. 6; A. Kalibai, 'Koshting Kidirgeni – Kongilge Shirkeu Tuskeni', Egemen Kazakhstan, 30 July 1994, p. 4. See Cummings, 'The Kazakhs ….', p. 148. Despite this legal distinction, the author observed that the term has increasingly come to be used in popular discourse as referring to all Kazakhs migrating to Kazakhstan from outside the state's territory. The term Oralman is generally translated as 'repatriate' by bi-lingual (English/Kazakh) Kazakhstani officials and experts. However, in the interests of restricting the scope of the claims made in this article, the term will be used to refer only to those legally defined as Oralmandar. See King & Melvin, 'Diaspora Politics …', pp. 108 – 138. See T. Bauer & F. Zimmermann, 'Network Migration of Ethnic Germans', International Migration Review, 31, 1, 1997, pp. 143 – 149; B. Dietz & P. Hilkes, Integriert order isoliert?: Zur Situation russlanddeutscher Aussiedler in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Munich, Olzog Verlag, 1994). See Pilkington, 'Going Home …?'; Pilkington & Flynn, 'From "Refugee" …'; Pilkington, Migration; T. Heleniak, 'Migration of the Russian Diaspora after the Collapse of the USSR', Journal of International Affairs, 57, 2, 2004, pp. 99 – 117; M. Flynn, 'Returning Home? Approaches to Repatriation and Migrant Resettlement in Post Soviet Russia', in Munz & Ohliger, Diasporas …; L. Barrington, E. Herron, & B. Silver, 'The Motherland is Calling: Views of Homeland among the Russians in the Near Abroad', World Politics, 55, 2003, pp. 290 – 313. H. Kulu & T. Tammaru, 'Ethnic Return Migration from the East and the West: the Case of Estonia in the 1990s,' Europe-Asia Studies, 52, 2, 2000, pp. 349 – 369. B. G. Williams, 'The Crimean Tatar Exile in Central Asia: A Case Study in Group Destruction and Survival', Central Asian Survey, 17, 2, 1998, pp. 285 – 317. A. Wilson, 'The Ukrainians; Engaging the Eastern Diaspora', in King & Melvin (eds) Nations Abroad, pp. 103 – 132. T. Tsuda, Strangers in the Homeland: Japanese Brazilian Return Migration in Transnational Perspective (New York, Columbia University Press, 2003). L. Basch, N. Glick-Schiller & C. Szanton-Blanc, Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Langhorne, Gordon & Breach, 1994). S. Westwood & A. Phizacklea, Transnationalism and the Politics of Belonging (London, Routledge, 2000). L. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1995). V. Mudimbe & S. Engel, Diaspora and Immigration Special Issue, South Atlantic Quarterly, 98,1 – 2, 1999. J. Evens-Braziel & A. Mannur, Theorizing Diaspora (Oxford, Blackwell, 2003). U. Bulag, Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998). See also A. Passi, 'Boundaries as Social Processes: Territoriality in the World of Flows', Geopolitics, 3, 1, 1998, pp. 69 – 88; R. Kaiser, 'Homeland Making and the Territorialization of National Identity', in D. Conversi (ed.), Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Study of Nationalism (London, Routledge, 2002), pp. 229 – 247; O. Yiftachel, 'The Homeland and Nationalism', in A. Motyl (ed.), Encyclopedia of Nationalism (London, Academic Press, 2001), pp. 359 – 383; A. Gupta, & J. Ferguson (eds), Culture, Power, Place (Durham, Duke University Press, 1997); W. Connor, 'The Impact of Homelands on Diasporas', in G. Scheffer (ed.), Modern Diasporas in International Politics (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1986), pp. 16 – 46. See Safran, 'Diasporas….', pp. 83 – 92; R. Cohen, Global Diasporas: An Introduction (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1997). The primary places of data collection for this article were Almaty, Astana, Karaganda and Pavlodar in Kazakhstan and Ulaan Baator and Bayan Olgi in Mongolia. With the legitimacy of the ethnic Kazakh regime considered questionable owing to the ethno-demographic parity between Kazakhs and non-Kazakhs in Kazakhstan (Kazakhs represented only 40.1% of the population of Kazakhstan at the time of independence), it is not surprising that an attempt to import recently nationalised diasporic Kazakhs would be enacted. Kazakh language newspapers such as Ana Tili, Egemen Kazakhstan, Kazakh Eli and Kosh disseminated a message of Kazakh cultural rebirth and diasporic 'ingathering'. At times this message was blatant, as in K. Toksanbai, 'Boten Elde Sultan Bolghansha, Oz Elingde Ultan Bol', Egemen Kazakhstan, 25 March 1998, p. 8; Zh. Shaneiuly, 'Atazhurtty Angsap Keldik', Egemen Kazakhstan, 9 May 1995, p. 2; Z. Zhaparuly, 'Kazaktar Kshan Atazhurtta Toptasady?!' Kazakh Eli, 19 September 1997, pp. 1 – 3; and Z. Turysbekov, 'Elinge Kait Aghaiyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 1 October 1998, p. 4. K. Bekeiuly, 'Atameken, Armysyng Dep Keldik Biz Elimizge', Egemen Kazakhstan, 5 January 1995, p. 3. 'Oralmandar Ayyly Whakyrady,' Egemen Kazakhstan', 4 May 2001, p. 3. Gh. Musirep, 'Kalyng Kazakh Karashangyrakka Kashan Oralady', Egemen Kazakhstan, 25 October 2000, p. 8. K. Naimanbaev, 'Bizdyng Tiline – Yltymyzdyng Daralykni – Turyskan Zharkyn Adamlar Attazhurtka Kaitsartingiz', Ana Tili, 22 March 2001, p. 10. K. Shamakaiuly, Kh. Arysbaiuly, A. Akyn & A. Kabidoldauly, 'Uli Kosh Toktamasyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 13 May 1996, p. 5. Toksanbai, 'Boten Elde …'. See also citations listed in note 6. Zh. Shapegul, 'Atazhurtka Angsap Zhetken: Agaiyn Nege Prenzhuly?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 29 April 1993, p. 2. B. Sarsembina, 'Oralmandar Ushinshi Sortty Kazakh Siyakty', Zhas Alash, 22 January 2002, p. 3. Zh. Beiisuly, 'Oralmandardyng Aldyn Orys Tili Orady', Zhas Alash, 29 May 2001, p. 2. A. Kanadatuly, 'Suiineringnen Kuiinering Nege Kop?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 23 December 1992, p. 1. Sh. Huandag, 'Kazakhstan – Burhany Oron Bish', Il Tovchoo, 1 – 10 March 1992, p. 7. H.A. Otgonbayar, 'Kazakhstand Durversdiin Lager' Heregtei Bolzhee', Il Tovchoo, 10 – 20 October 1992, pp. 3 – 4. See also the citations in note 11. Author's interview with Kaldarbek Naimanbaev, Almaty, March 2002. One might, however, note the title of Naimanbaev's article, 'Bizdyng Tiline – Yltymyzdyng Daralykni - Turyskan Zharkyn Adamlar Attazhurtka Kaitsartingiz' (The Uniqueness of Our Nation is Our Language - Come Back to the Homeland Kinsmen) (note 34). Author's interview with Naimanbaev. See also D. Beldeubaiuly, 'Ultimizding Kuiesi – Tilinde', Ana Tili, 22 March 2001, pp. 10 – 11. Author's interview with Naimanbaev. Examples of the government's stated intent to engage with the Kazakh diaspora include Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 3308, 'On the state programme of support of compatriots abroad', 13 December 1996. The programme included a series of measures aimed at determining the main socioeconomic, political and cultural problems and outlining perspectives of development of Kazakh communities aboard. B. Dave, 'National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change', Post Soviet Affairs, 12, 1, 1996, pp. 51 – 72; J. Janabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', Central Asian Survey, 15, 1, 1996, pp. 5 – 21; A. M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 14, 2, 1995, pp. 243 – 264; P. Kolsto, 'Anticipating Demographic Superiority: Kazakh Thinking on Integration and Nation Building', Europe-Asia Studies 50, 1, 1998, pp. 51 – 69; Holm-Hansen, 'Political Integration …', pp. 153 – 126; D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: the Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1998); Olcott, Kazakhstan …, pp. 51 – 86 and 174 – 189; R. Wolfel, 'North to Astana: Nationalistic Motives for the Movement of the Kazakh(stani) Capital', Nationalities Papers, 30, 3, 2002, pp. 485 – 505. Ethnic Kazakh demographer Makash Tatimov was among the most outspoken nationalists promoting government policies to enhance the Kazakh demographic position in Kazakhstan; see M. Tatimov, Khalikh Nama: Nemese san men Sana (Almaty, Zhazushi, 1992); M. Tatimov, 'Kanshamiz Kazakh Bilmeimiz?', Ana Tili, 15 March 1992, pp. 1 – 3. See notes 6 and 34. Many Oralmandar, particularly those from Mongolia, came to Kazakhstan under the auspices of labour contracts that assured them of a series of benefits over a period of time – usually five years, see Zhusupov, Strategiya … . The following discussion is derived in part from Zhusupov, Strategiya …, and has been supplemented by my own research on this topic. Murat Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal for the Legislative Components of the Oralman Project', Daneker Institute, 2001, pp. 3 – 5. See also Zhusupov, Immigration Policy …, pp. 5 – 9. Ibid., pp.15 – 22, Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal …', pp. 1 – 2; and Zhusupov, Strategiya …, pp. 6 – 8. The term oblast' relates to a provincial scale of territorial administration while akimat represents a local scale. See Zhusupov, Immigration Policy …, pp.15 – 22; A. Zhaghanova, 'Kosh Konysty Bolsyn Desek…', Egemen Kazakhstan, 30 March 2001, p. 3; 'Shetl Kazakhtarynyng Eng Basty Problemasy Kandai?', Kazakh Eli, 27 July 1998, p.1; and 'Large Group of Repatriates Receives Kazakh Citizenship But Problems Remain Acute', http://www.bureau.kz/articles/review150401d.shtml April 1 – 8 2001; E.M. Arin, E.M. Abenov & K. Bodaukhanuli, 'Kazakh Diasporasynyng Koshi-kony Uilestiru Zheitteri', Sayasat: Akparattyk-Talbau Blyulletni, 3, 22, 1997, pp.40 – 47; E.M. Arin, E.M. Abenov, & K. Bodaukhanuli, 'Kazakh Diasporasynyng Koshi-kony Uilestiru Zheitteri,' Sayasat 3, 23, 1997, pp.75 – 83. Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal …', p.4. See K. Jastram & M. Achiron, Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law, UNHCR Website http://www.unhcr.ch/cgibin/texis/vtx/home/, 2002, pp.76 – 80. This document declares a repatriate to be a special legal entity, who should have equal rights with the citizens of the state to which he/she returned after having to live aboard against his/her will. Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal …', pp. 4 – 5. See Zhusupov, Immigration Policy …, pp. 15 – 22; Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal …', pp. 1 – 2; Zhusupov, Strategiya …, pp. 6 – 8; International Organization for Migration (IOM) Newsletter, No.3, Almaty, December 2001, p.2; Arin et al., pp. 40 – 47; and pp. 75 – 83; A. Bek Kala, 'Zher Turaly Zang Zhobasynda Oralmandar Nege Umyt Kalghan?' Zhas Alash, 4 April 2000, p. 3. Kazakhs in China, Afghanistan and Iran use the Arabic script. Elderly Kazakhs from Mongolia are also familiar with the Arabic script but have largely adapted to Cyrillic. In an attempt to provide a comprehensive piece of legislation pertaining to migration, the Kazakhstani parliament adopted the law 'On Migration of Population' on 13 December 1997. This migration law has a particularly interesting history and, like many issues within the Kazakhstani legislative realm, is bound up with the dichotomy of ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism. According to S. Zhusupov, Strategiya Migratsionnoi Programmy 'Oralman' (Materialy po Strateglicheskomu S''ezdu 30 – 31 Marta 2001), the law 'On Migration of Population' was the first draft law, in its modern understanding, to be formulated and written in the Kazakh language. It was drawn up against a background of heated discussion pertaining to national language policy, in particular the role of the Kazakh language in law making. The authors of the law were purported to be those seeking to prove that the Kazakh language was suitable for legal purposes, and the migration of diasporic Kazakhs provided a perfect issue through which this case could be made. See Chapter 4, A translated of the law be at See also Egemen Kazakhstan, 18 March 1997, p. 3. Zhusupov, Immigration Policy … that Kazakhs in Kazakhstan from Mongolia. This from the Mongolian population which a in the Kazakh the of Kazakhs in Mongolia this is this issue in would to to the of owing to the of and the among many Mongolian Kazakh that was an of Kazakhs in the 1989 Mongolian Kazakhs are by the of Oralman of them to be see Mendikulova, 'Kazakhskaya diaspora …', pp. 73 – and G. Otyrghan Zhas Alash, 6 May 2001, p. 1. is considered by many Kazakh to be 'Kazakh and Kazakh of was as in the of those in the and Kazakhs migrating to Kazakhstan from Afghanistan and Iran have a to Oralman The World of Kazakhs was in Kazakhstan in This of Kazakhs that Kazakhs in Mongolia Kazakh and language to a Kazakh in the that of the Kazakh see N. Kazakhstan October 1992, See Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal …', pp. 1 – 3. See T. (New York, Routledge, W. E. in W. E. & C. B. (eds), The Encyclopedia of and (New York, See also E. 'The Organization of DC, of not to the Oralmandar, a in to and in Kazakhstan's for A adopted on 26 November 2003, that to Kazakhstan should have and be to prove that have a numerical in order to for in Kazakhstan; see M. Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 10 February an on the for to be policies in and seeking to the of labour The numerical is used in the Kazakhstani state to and It is a that is and at the is It was that the state could legislation pertaining to the of and of This is for with which Kazakhstan has migration and See N. in A. et al., i 1999), – …', p. 1; K. Kazakh Zhas Alash, 6 May 2000, p. 3; S. M. & K. Koshke Egemen Kazakhstan, 6 May 1992, p. 2; Z. Atazhurtka Kazakh Eli, 10 July 1998, pp. 1 – 2; D. 'Koshi-Kon Egemen Kazakhstan, 13 July 1994, p. 3. It should be that has its and has to support diasporic Germans in places of of this of and the support for diasporic Germans be in Diener, Homeland L. Policy for Germans from Russia to Review, 4, 1997, pp. 25 – G. H. & A. and in Journal of May 1996, – W. and Identity in German in H. (ed.), The Republic of at The End of a of (New York, New University Press, 1999), pp. – of the Kazakh by the author that of to of diasporic the labour The migration was to be and the labour was a of the Author's interview with an from an Oralman support Astana, October of the Kazakhs migrating to Kazakhstan within the are to be of see Zhusupov, Strategiya …, p. 3. with – the position of many to to Kazakhstan on to the of this The for among diasporic Kazakhs also many the the of the Oralman that was on governmental A of that many Mongolian Kazakhs Kazakhstan as its and The in Mongolia this particularly in the Kazakhs with the to the of to be a see Diener, 'One Homeland …', pp. – Zhusupov, Strategiya …, p. 3. Ibid., See R. Wolfel, 'North to …', pp. 485 – A that are the Kazakhstani Kazakhs but owing to the language are in terms of the this included and A and were also to within The with of and support this See Egemen Kazakhstan, 18 March 1997, A of the Kazakhstani was the of see 'Political Integration …', pp. – and Olcott, Kazakhstan …, pp. – 127. this is a of the of Kazakhstan's population and the that would the legitimacy of the were made in the of Kazakhstan's to the a Kazakh with see A. Maukaruly, 'Kazakh Repatrianttarynyng Bugim taghdyry Kandai?!', Kazakh Eli, 31 January 1997, pp. 1 – 4. This was of that it would be as an attempt to a ethnic a the Oralmandar have been with a of the of the See K. – Kazakh Eli, July 1997, pp. 2 – 3. Zhusupov, Strategiya …, p. 3. See O. Urimkhanuly, Kazakh Zhas Alash, 22 January 2002, p. 3; Zh. 'Kazakhstan – Zhas Alash, 26 January 2002, p. 1; …', p. 2. in the made to the of and The problems were by all of them as A of to is provided in 'Oralmandar 18 September 2001, p. 8. Urimkhanuly, 'Oralmandargha …', p. 1. to have the of such a the of the Republic of Kazakhstan was to include a on 15 April that and legal as as the rights and have the as by the legislation for Kazakhstani citizens and legal a to such as those in Jastram & Achiron, Refugee …, pp. – 80. written the this special is however, in legislation of the Republic of of 1 of the adopted by the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan on 22 January that a repatriate legally in See Bek Kala, 'Zher Turaly …', p. 3. According to Immigration Policy …', p. 2 – 4 only of the over Oralmandar see also Sarsembina, 'Oralmandar …', See P. 'The of in (ed.), Contemporary Kazakhs: and Social Press, 1999), p. Cummings, 'The Kazakhs …', p. N. Melvin, Russians The Politics of National Identity (London, The Institute of International Affairs, p. and and the Building and Ethnic in Kazakhstan', Ethnic and Studies, 17, 4, p. See A. Diener, Diaspora and Territorialization of Kazakhs in in See of by President Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 23 November 1991, p. 1. Kazakhstan (Almaty, p. 3. of diasporic Kazakhs in the the of Afghanistan and have of return from Afghanistan are to be between and estimate of Kazakhs is Zhusupov, Policy …', p. Kazakhs are to have to Kazakhstan from an Kazakh in of – Cummings, 'The Kazakhs …', p. Return from are at of a Kazakh population of million Zhusupov, Policy …', p. 2 and Cummings, 'The Kazakhs …', p. Kazakhs from are to have of a of See Sharip, A. Maukaruly, 'Kazakh Repatrianttarynyng Bugim taghdyry Kazakh Eli, 31 January 1997, pp. 1 – 2. an discourse the Oralmandar are by to a for the of the Kazakh The term from of the of Central as The term has a term in Kazakhstan and Central Asian by nationalists seeking to see The a University Press, and and Mongolian Kazakh Oralmandar have for such An is in a from a Mongolian Kazakh to President 28 April 1992, in which a is made for Mongolian Kazakh Oralmandar to live Mongolian Kazakhs to in East Kazakhstan oblast' and in the of are in this and the is to Mongolia. It is also See C. 'Kazakhstan Kazakh to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan from the Mongolian Kazakh 28 April 1992, p. 4. Author's interview with Kazakh Astana, October See Zhaparuly, 'Kazaktar …', pp. 1 – 3; Toksanbai, 'Boten Elde …', p. 3; 'Elinge …', p. 4. See Zhusupov, …, p. 3. This is a that the for at See 'The …'; see also … …'.

Перевод пока недоступен