Black phosphorus quantum dots: Structure–property coupling for advanced photonics, sensing, and bio-optoelectronic systems

Black phosphorus quantum dots (BPQDs) have emerged as a distinctive class of quantum-confined nanomaterials exhibiting highly tunable optical, electronic, and interfacial behaviors. Despite significant experimental activity, a unified understanding of their structure–property relationships remains in development. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of progress regarding synthetic methodologies, electronic structure reconstruction, excitonic dynamics, surface functionalization, and device integration. We critically evaluate how quantum confinement, edge reconstruction, defect chemistry, and interfacial charge transfer collectively influence nonlinear optical responses, photoluminescence, and electrochemiluminescence. While recent advances in covalent functionalization and heterostructure engineering have improved environmental robustness and stability, significant challenges persist, particularly concerning operational durability, synthesis reproducibility, and the absence of standardized characterization metrics. We emphasize the necessity of integrating predictive modeling with rigorous structural control to bridge current knowledge gaps. By identifying these methodological bottlenecks, this work provides a structured framework for the future design of BPQDs, aiming to establish them as a reliable convergent platform for advanced photonic, sensing, and bio-optoelectronic applications.

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