Surface Chemistry and Biological Implications of Indium Phosphide Quantum Dots: From Interface Engineering to Safety Considerations

Indium phosphide quantum dots (InP QDs) have emerged as promising cadmium-free nanomaterials for optoelectronic and biomedical applications owing to their tunable optical properties and comparatively lower intrinsic toxicity. Nevertheless, increasing evidence demonstrates that the biological behavior of InP QDs is governed predominantly by surface chemistry rather than core composition alone. This review critically examines the mechanistic relationship between surface architecture and the toxicity and hemocompatibility of InP QDs, with particular emphasis on ligand engineering, defect passivation, interfacial thermodynamics, and surface charge regulation. Recent experimental and theoretical studies are systematically analyzed to elucidate how ligand organization, inorganic shell growth, surface reconstruction, and defect-associated electronic states modulate nanoparticle interactions with proteins, cellular membranes, platelets, and renal tissues. The review further discusses how surface chemical reconfiguration influences oxidative stress generation, protein corona formation, platelet activation, inflammatory signaling, and organ-level responses under physiological conditions. Particular attention is devoted to thermodynamic aspects of ligand exchange and cooperative interligand interactions that dynamically control the accessibility and reactivity of the nanocrystal interface. Emerging surface-engineering strategies including PEGylation, zwitterionic ligand design, multidentate coordination, and core–shell passivation are evaluated as pathways toward biologically safer and hemocompatible InP QDs. Finally, the article proposes an integrated safe-by-design framework linking photophysical performance with biological compatibility and translational nanomaterial engineering. This review provides a comprehensive surface-science perspective on the interfacial mechanisms governing InP QD toxicity and offers practical design principles for the development of high-performance and biologically compatible quantum-dot systems for advanced biomedical and technological applications.

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