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Green-synthesized silver and metal oxide nanoparticles for in vitro antifungal activity against Alternaria solani in tomato

Nasir MehmoodAcademy of Biology and Medicine, Southeren Federal University, Rostov on Don, RussiaSalman GhuffarDepartment of Environmental Sciences, Kohsar University, Murree, PakistanDarima HabibUniversity of EducationGulshan IrshadDepartment of Plant Pathology, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, PakistanSadaf AnwaarDepartment of Biological Sciences, International Islamic University, Islamabad, PakistanMuhammad ShahidDepartment of Plant Pathology, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, PakistanMuhammad Ahmad ZeshanDepartment of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, PakistanVishnu D. RajputAcademy of Biology and Medicine, Southeren Federal University, Rostov on Don, RussiaTauseef AnwarDepartment of Botany, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, 63100, PakistanHuma QureshiHossam S. El-BeltagiAgricultural Biotechnology Department, College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, 31982, Al- Ahsa, Saudi ArabiaSalohiddinjon YunusovDepartment ofVegetable Growing and Organization of Greenhouse Farming, Tashkent State Agrarian University, 2 A., Universitet, Str., Kibray district, 100140, Tashkent, Tashkent region, UzbekistanOrkhan KhudiyevDepartment of Basic Medical, Nakhchivan State University, Nakhchivan, AzerbaijanNazih Y. RebouhInstitute of Environmental Engineering, RUDN University, Miklukho-Maklaya St, Moscow, Russia, 117198Mohammed S. AlotaibiDepartment of Biology, Turabah University College, Taif University, 21995, Taif, Saudi ArabiaÁrpád SzékelyInstitute of Environmental Sciences, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Páter Károly 1, Gödöllő, 2100, Hungary

2026en

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Abstract Background Early blight, caused by Alternaria solani , is a destructive tomato disease, and repeated use of synthetic fungicides raises concerns regarding resistance development, residues, environmental contamination, and human-health risks. This in vitro study evaluated Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.-mediated silver nanoparticles (g-AgNPs), copper oxide nanoparticles (g-CuO NPs), and zinc oxide nanoparticles (g-ZnO NPs) against A. solani isolate ASIB-15. Nanoparticles were synthesized using leaf extract and characterized by UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, EDX, SEM, and TEM. Antifungal activity was assessed at 10, 25, 50, and 100 µg/mL using inhibition-zone diameter and colony-diameter-based mycelial-growth inhibition as complementary endpoints. Results Mean particle sizes were 14.0 ± 9.5 nm for g-AgNPs, 6.93 ± 1.92 nm for g-CuO NPs, and 28.5 ± 6.5 nm for g-ZnO NPs, supporting their nanoscale range within this assay system. The synthesized nanoparticles showed nanoscale morphology and concentration-dependent antifungal activity. At 100 µg/mL, g-AgNPs produced the strongest response, with a 16 mm inhibition zone and about 72% mycelial-growth inhibition. At the same concentration, g-CuO NPs produced an approximately 13 mm inhibition zone and about 60% inhibition, whereas g-ZnO NPs produced an approximately 15 mm inhibition zone and about 50% inhibition. The different rankings obtained from inhibition-zone diameter and percentage mycelial-growth inhibition reflect that these endpoints measure different aspects of fungal suppression. Conclusion Overall, the results identify E. camaldulensis -mediated g-AgNPs, g-CuO NPs, and g-ZnO NPs as preliminary in vitro antifungal candidates against A. solani . However, phytotoxicity testing, greenhouse and field validation, formulation-stability assessment, mechanism studies, and commercial fungicide comparisons are required before practical tomato early blight management recommendations can be made.

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DOI: 10.1186/s40538-026-01034-7

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