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Interface-engineered ratiometric and dual-emission carbon quantum dot sensors for tetracycline detection in complex matrices

Kamel A. SalehFaculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Hourani Center for Applied Scientific Research, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, JordanHasanain Amer NajiCollege of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, AL-Turath University, Baghdad, IraqIrwanjot KaurCentre for Research Impact and Outcome, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, IndiaAhmed AldulaimiCollege of Food Sciences, Al-Qasim Green University, Babylon, IraqMaha Mohammed TawfiqDepartment of Optics Techniques, health and medical techniques college, Alnoor University, Mosul, IraqKamal Kishore ThakurDepartment of Chemistry, University Institute of Sciences, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, IndiaKhushnud AzizjanovDepartment of Natural Sciences, Mamun University, Khiva, UzbekistanEshkobilov OzodbekDepartment of Basic Medical Sciences, Termez University of Economics and Service, Termez, UzbekistanNeda SarhanYoung Researchers and Elite Club, Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

2026en

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Litsenziya: cc-by

ABI

Annotatsiya

Ratiometric and dual-emission carbon quantum dot (CQD)-based fluorescent sensors have emerged as promising analytical platforms for tetracycline detection in complex food, environmental, and pharmaceutical matrices. This review discusses recent advances in the interfacial and electronic-state engineering of CQDs that enable stable dual-emission behavior and self-calibrated ratiometric sensing. Particular attention is given to the effects of heteroatom doping, surface functionalization, defect-state modulation, and hybrid nanostructures on fluorescence regulation and analytical performance. Key sensing mechanisms, including inner filter effect, Förster resonance energy transfer, coordination-induced emission modulation, and aggregation-associated signal switching, are systematically evaluated in relation to spectral stability, signal decoupling, and quantitative reliability. The review further examines the practical applicability of CQD-based fluorescent systems in real matrices such as milk, wastewater, river water, and pharmaceutical samples, where matrix-dependent interference and calibration instability remain significant challenges. Current limitations involving reproducibility, structural heterogeneity, environmental sensitivity, and lack of standardized analytical protocols are also discussed. In addition, emerging developments in portable sensing devices, visual fluorescence platforms, and machine-assisted signal interpretation are highlighted as future directions for intelligent and field-deployable tetracycline monitoring technologies.

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rsurfi.2026.100929

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