First Sagittarius A* Event Horizon Telescope Results. IV. Variability, Morphology, and Black Hole Mass
Kazunori AkiyamaA. AlberdiBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAW. AlefInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainJuan Carlos AlgabaMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyRichard AnantuaDepartment of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaKeiichi AsadaThe University of Texas at San AntonioRebecca AzulayInstitute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 11F of Astronomy-Mathematics Building, AS/NTU No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.CU. BachMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyAnne-Kathrin BaczkoMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyDavid BallMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyMislav BalokovićSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USAJ. BarrettYale Center for Astronomy & Astrophysics, Yale University, 52 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT 06511, USAMichi BauböckMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USAB. A. BensonDepartment of Physics, University of Illinois, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USADan BintleyFermi National Accelerator Laboratory, MS209, P.O. Box 500, Batavia, IL 60510, USALindy BlackburnJames Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAR. BlundellBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAKatherine L. BoumanCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAGeoffrey C. BowerCalifornia Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USAHope BoyceInstitute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 645 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAMichael BremerMcGill Space Institute, McGill University, 3550 rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2A7, CanadaChristiaan D. BrinkerinkInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceRoger BrissendenDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsS. BritzenCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAAvery E. BroderickMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyDominique BroguièrePerimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline Street N, Waterloo, ON N2L 2Y5, CanadaThomas BronzwaerInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceSandra BustamanteDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsDo‐Young ByunDepartment of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USAJ. E. CarlstromUniversity of Science and Technology, Gajeong-ro 217, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic Of KoreaChiara CeccobelloDepartment of Physics, University of Chicago, 5720 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USAAndrew ChaelDepartment of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, SE-43992 Onsala, SwedenChi‐kwan ChanNASA Hubble Fellowship Program, Einstein FellowKoushik ChatterjeeProgram in Applied Mathematics, University of Arizona, 617 N. Santa Rita, Tucson, AZ 85721Shami ChatterjeeCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAMing‐Tang ChenCornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USAYongjun ChenXiaopeng ChengKey Laboratory of Radio Astronomy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China; Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 80 Nandan Road, Shanghai 200030, People's Republic of ChinaIlje ChoKorea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Daedeok-daero 776, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34055, Republic Of KoreaPierre ChristianInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainNicholas S. ConroyPhysics Department, Fairfield University, 1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield, CT 06824, USAJ. E. ConwayCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAJ. M. CordesDepartment of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, SE-43992 Onsala, SwedenT. M. CrawfordCornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USAG. CrewKavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USAAlejandro Cruz-OsorioMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USAYuzhu CuiInstitut für Theoretische Physik, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 1, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyJordy DavelaarDepartment of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan; Mizusawa VLBI Observatory, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-12 Hoshigaoka, Mizusawa, Oshu, Iwate 023-0861, Japan; Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shengrong Road 520, Shanghai, 201210, People's Republic of ChinaMariafelicia De LaurentisCenter for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USARoger DeaneDipartimento di Fisica "E. Pancini," Universitá di Napoli "Federico II," Compl. Univ. di Monte S. Angelo, Edificio G, Via Cinthia, I-80126, Napoli, ItalyJessica DempseyDepartment of Physics, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria 0028, South AfricaG. DesvignesEast Asian Observatory, 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAJason DexterMax Planck Institute for Radio AstronomyVedant DhruvUniversity of Colorado BoulderSheperd S. DoelemanDepartment of Physics, University of Illinois, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USASean DougalBlack Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USASergio A. DzibSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USARalph P. EatoughInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceRazieh EmamiNational Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of ChinaH. FalckeCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USAJoseph FarahDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsVincent L. FishDepartment of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9530, USAEd FomalontMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USAH. Alyson FordNational Radio Astronomy Observatory, 520 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USARaquel Fraga-EncinasSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USAWilliam T. FreemanDepartment of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The NetherlandsPer FribergGoogle Research, 355 Main St., Cambridge, MA 02142, USAChristian M. FrommEast Asian Observatory, 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAAntonio FuentesMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, GermanyPeter GalisonInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainCharles F. GammieDepartment of History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USARoberto GarcíaDepartment of Astronomy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1002 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USAOlivier GentazInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceBoris GeorgievInstitut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, FranceC. GoddiPerimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline Street N, Waterloo, ON N2L 2Y5, CanadaRoman GoldINAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Via della Scienza 5, I-09047, Selargius, CA, ItalyArturo I. Gómez-RuizCP3-Origins, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, DenmarkJosé L. GómezConsejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologìa, Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, 03940, Ciudad de México, MéxicoMinfeng GuInstituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, SpainMark GurwellShanghai Astronomical ObservatoryKazuhiro HadaCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USADaryl HaggardDepartment of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, JapanKari HaworthDepartment of Physics, McGill University, 3600 rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2T8, CanadaM. H. HechtCenter for Astrophysics ∣ Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USARonald HesperMassachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USADirk HeumannNOVA Sub-mm Instrumentation Group, Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Landleven 12, 9747 AD Groningen, The NetherlandsLuis C. HoSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USAPaul T. P. HoDepartment of Astronomy, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China; Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of ChinaMareki HonmaJames Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USAChih-Wei L. HuangDepartment of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, JapanLei 磊 Huang 黄Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 11F of Astronomy-Mathematics Building, AS/NTU No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.CD. H. HughesShanghai Astronomical ObservatoryShiro IkedaInstituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica. Apartado Postal 51 y 216, 72000. Puebla Pue., MéxicoC. M. Violette ImpellizzeriThe University of TokyoMakoto InoueLeiden Observatory, Leiden University, Postbus 2300, 9513 RA Leiden, The NetherlandsSara IssaounInstitute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 11F of Astronomy-Mathematics Building, AS/NTU No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.CD. J. JamesNASA Hubble Fellowship Program, Einstein FellowBuell T. JannuziAtmospheric and Space Technology Research Associates (United States)Michaël JanssenSteward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USABritton JeterMax-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
2022en
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Abstract In this paper we quantify the temporal variability and image morphology of the horizon-scale emission from Sgr A*, as observed by the EHT in 2017 April at a wavelength of 1.3 mm. We find that the Sgr A* data exhibit variability that exceeds what can be explained by the uncertainties in the data or by the effects of interstellar scattering. The magnitude of this variability can be a substantial fraction of the correlated flux density, reaching ∼100% on some baselines. Through an exploration of simple geometric source models, we demonstrate that ring-like morphologies provide better fits to the Sgr A* data than do other morphologies with comparable complexity. We develop two strategies for fitting static geometric ring models to the time-variable Sgr A* data; one strategy fits models to short segments of data over which the source is static and averages these independent fits, while the other fits models to the full data set using a parametric model for the structural variability power spectrum around the average source structure. Both geometric modeling and image-domain feature extraction techniques determine the ring diameter to be 51.8 ± 2.3 μ as (68% credible intervals), with the ring thickness constrained to have an FWHM between ∼30% and 50% of the ring diameter. To bring the diameter measurements to a common physical scale, we calibrate them using synthetic data generated from GRMHD simulations. This calibration constrains the angular size of the gravitational radius to be <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" overflow="scroll"> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>4.8</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>−</mml:mo> <mml:mn>0.7</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mn>1.4</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> </mml:math> μ as, which we combine with an independent distance measurement from maser parallaxes to determine the mass of Sgr A* to be <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" overflow="scroll"> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>4.0</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>−</mml:mo> <mml:mn>0.6</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mn>1.1</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> <mml:mo>×</mml:mo> <mml:msup> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>10</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>6</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msup> </mml:math> M ⊙ .
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