Maqola

Large Interferometer For Exoplanets (LIFE)

Sascha P. QuanzETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandMaurice OttigerETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandE. FontanetETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandJens KammererEuropean Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 2, 85748 Garching, GermanyFranziska MentiETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandFelix DannertETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandAdrian GheorgheETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandO. AbsilSTAR Institute, University of Liège, 19C allée du Six Aout, 4000 Liège, BelgiumVladimir AirapetianNASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Rd, Greenbelt, MD, 20771 USAEleonora AleiETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandRomain AllartDepartment of Physics, and Institute for Research on Exoplanets, Université de Montréal, Montréal H3T 1J4, CanadaDaniel AngerhausenETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandSarah D. BlumenthalUniversity of Oxford, Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Sherrington Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UKLars A. BuchhaveDTU Space, National Space Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 328, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, DenmarkJ. CabreraDepartment of Extrasolar Planets and Atmospheres, Institute for Planetary Research, German Aerospace Centre, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, GermanyÓscar Carrión-GonzálezZentrum für Astronomie und Astrophysik, Technische Universität Berlin, Hardenbergstrasse 36, 10623 Berlin, GermanyG. ChauvinUniv. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, FranceW. C. DanchiNASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Rd, Greenbelt, MD, 20771 USAColin DandumontCentre Spatial de Liège, Université de Liège, Avenue Pré-Aily, 4031 Angleur, BelgiumDenis DefrèreInstitute of Astronomy, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D, 3001 Leuven, BelgiumCaroline DornUniversity of Zurich, Institute of Computational Sciences, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, SwitzerlandD. EhrenreichObservatoire astronomique de l’Université de Genève, chemin Pegasi 51b, 1290 Versoix, SwitzerlandSteve ErtelLarge Binocular Telescope Observatory, 933 North Cherry Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721 USAM. FridlundDepartment of Space, Earth & Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, 439 92 Onsala, SwedenA. García MuñozZentrum für Astronomie und Astrophysik, Technische Universität Berlin, Hardenbergstrasse 36, 10623 Berlin, GermanyCarlos GascónInstitut de Ciències de l’Espai (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, C/Can Magrans s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, SpainJ. H. GirardSpace Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218 USAAdrian M. GlauserETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandJohn Lee GrenfellDepartment of Extrasolar Planets and Atmospheres, Institute for Planetary Research, German Aerospace Centre, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, GermanyGreta GuidiETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandJ. HagelbergObservatoire astronomique de l’Université de Genève, chemin Pegasi 51b, 1290 Versoix, SwitzerlandRavit HelledUniversity of Zurich, Institute of Computational Sciences, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, SwitzerlandMichael IrelandResearch School of Astronomy & Astrophysics, Australian National University, ACT 2611, AustraliaM. JansonDepartment of Astronomy, Stockholm University, Alba Nova University Center, 10691 Stockholm, SwedenRavi KopparapuNASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Rd, Greenbelt, MD, 20771 USAJ. KorthDepartment of Space, Earth and Environment, Astronomy and Plasma Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Gothenburg, SwedenThea KozakisDTU Space, National Space Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 328, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, DenmarkStefan KrausUniversity of Exeter, School of Physics and Astronomy, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QL, UKAlain LégerIAS, CNRS (UMR 8617), bât 121, Univ. Paris-Sud, 91405 Orsay, FranceL. LeedjärvUniversity of Tartu, Tartu Observatory, 1 Observatooriumi Str., 61602 Tõravere, Tartumaa, EstoniaTim LichtenbergUniversity of Oxford, Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Sherrington Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UKJ. Lillo-BoxCentro de Astrobiología (CAB, CSIC-INTA), Depto. de Astrofísica, ESAC campus 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada (Madrid), SpainH. LinzMax-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, GermanyR. LiseauDepartment of Space, Earth & Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, 439 92 Onsala, SwedenJérôme LoïcqCentre Spatial de Liège, Université de Liège, Avenue Pré-Aily, 4031 Angleur, BelgiumVaishali MahendraSRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, IndiaF. MalbetUniv. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, FranceJoice MathewResearch School of Astronomy & Astrophysics, Australian National University, ACT 2611, AustraliaBertrand MennessonJet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA 91109 USAM. R. MeyerDepartment of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USALokesh MishraNational Center of Competence in Research PlanetS, Gesellschaftsstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, SwitzerlandKaran MolaverdikhaniLandessternwarte, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Königstuhl 12, 69117 Heidelberg, GermanyLena NoackFreie Universitat Berlin, Department of Earth Sciences, Malteserstr. 74–100, 12249 Berlin, GermanyA. OzaJet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA 91109 USAΕ. ΠάλληDept. Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, SpainH. ParviainenDept. Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, SpainA. QuirrenbachLandessternwarte, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Königstuhl 12, 69117 Heidelberg, GermanyH. RauerDepartment of Extrasolar Planets and Atmospheres, Institute for Planetary Research, German Aerospace Centre, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, GermanyI. RibasInstitut de Ciències de l’Espai (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, C/Can Magrans s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, SpainMalena RiceDepartment of Astronomy, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511 USAA RomagnoloNicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Bartycka 18, 00–716 Warsaw, PolandSarah RugheimerUniversity of Oxford, Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, Sherrington Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UKEdward W. SchwietermanDepartment of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Ave. Riverside, CA 92521 USAEugene SerabynJet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA 91109 USASwapnil SharmaDeshbandhu College, University of Delhi 110019 Delhi, IndiaKeivan G. StassunVanderbilt University, Department of Physics & Astronomy, 6301 Stevenson Center Ln., Nashville, TN 37235 USAJ. SzulágyiETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandHaiyang WangETH Zurich, Institute for Particle Physics & Astrophysics, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 27, 8093 Zurich, SwitzerlandFabian WunderlichDepartment of Extrasolar Planets and Atmospheres, Institute for Planetary Research, German Aerospace Centre, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, GermanyM. C. WyattInstitute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK

2022en

ABI

Annotatsiya

Context. One of the long-term goals of exoplanet science is the atmospheric characterization of dozens of small exoplanets in order to understand their diversity and search for habitable worlds and potential biosignatures. Achieving this goal requires a space mission of sufficient scale that can spatially separate the signals from exoplanets and their host stars and thus directly scrutinize the exoplanets and their atmospheres. Aims. We seek to quantify the exoplanet detection performance of a space-based mid-infrared (MIR) nulling interferometer that measures the thermal emission of exoplanets. We study the impact of various parameters and compare the performance with that of large single-aperture mission concepts that detect exoplanets in reflected light. Methods. We have developed an instrument simulator that considers all major astrophysical noise sources and coupled it with Monte Carlo simulations of a synthetic exoplanet population around main-sequence stars within 20 pc of the Sun. This allows us to quantify the number (and types) of exoplanets that our mission concept could detect. Considering single visits only, we discuss two different scenarios for distributing 2.5 yr of an initial search phase among the stellar targets. Different apertures sizes and wavelength ranges are investigated. Results. An interferometer consisting of four 2 m apertures working in the 4–18.5 μ.m wavelength range with a total instrument throughput of 5% could detect up to ≈550 exoplanets with radii between 0.5 and 6 R ⊕ with an integrated S / N ≥ 7. At least ≈160 of the detected exoplanets have radii ≤1.5 R ⊕ . Depending on the observing scenario, ≈25–45 rocky exoplanets (objects with radii between 0.5 and 1.5 R ⊕ ) orbiting within the empirical habitable zone (eHZ) of their host stars are among the detections. With four 3.5 m apertures, the total number of detections can increase to up to ≈770, including ≈60–80 rocky eHZ planets. With four times 1 m apertures, the maximum detection yield is ≈315 exoplanets, including ≤20 rocky eHZ planets. The vast majority of small, temperate exoplanets are detected around M dwarfs. The impact of changing the wavelength range to 3–20 μm or 6–17 μm on the detection yield is negligible. Conclusions. A large space-based MIR nulling interferometer will be able to directly detect hundreds of small, nearby exoplanets, tens of which would be habitable world candidates. This shows that such a mission can compete with large single-aperture reflected light missions. Further increasing the number of habitable world candidates, in particular around solar-type stars, appears possible via the implementation of a multi-visit strategy during the search phase. The high median S/N of most of the detected planets will allow for first estimates of their radii and effective temperatures and will help prioritize the targets for a second mission phase to obtain high-S/N thermal emission spectra, leveraging the superior diagnostic power of the MIR regime compared to shorter wavelengths.

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Identifikatorlar

DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202140366

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